C180 Milestone 1 Study Notes

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Western Governors University

C180 Introduction to Psychology

Prof. Name

Date

UNIT 1 — MILESTONE 1

Classic Psychological Studies: Communicating Observed Behavior

In the field of psychology, the concept of description pertains to the process of articulating observed behaviors in a clear and systematic way. While observation involves directly witnessing or measuring behavior, description focuses on the communication of those observations in an organized, scientific manner. Effective description is vital because it promotes shared understanding among researchers, facilitates replication of studies, and supports further investigation into psychological phenomena (American Psychological Association [APA], 2020).

Question	Answer	Explanation
In psychology, communicating what you see happening with behavior is known as __________.	Description	Observation is the act of perceiving behavior, whereas description involves clearly communicating those perceptions to others.

Goals and Definitions: Focus of Behaviorists

Behaviorism is a major school within psychology that emphasizes studying observable behaviors instead of internal mental states. Behaviorists argue that behaviors are shaped and controlled by environmental influences and learning experiences. Through mechanisms such as classical and operant conditioning, behaviors can be predicted, modified, and regulated effectively (Skinner, 1953). This focus on observable stimuli and responses distinctly separates behaviorism from other psychological approaches.

Question	Answer	Explanation
Behaviorists study __________.	The effects of learning and the environment on behavior	Behaviorists focus exclusively on observable behaviors influenced by environmental stimuli rather than internal mental states.

History of Psychological Theories: Behaviorism and Gestalt – Stimulus and Response

Behaviorism is founded on the principle that a stimulus—an external event in the environment—elicits a response, which is the observable behavioral reaction. Learning occurs through forming associations between stimuli and responses, ultimately leading to habitual behaviors (Watson, 1913).

Key Terms	Definitions
Stimulus	Any event or circumstance that provokes a behavioral reaction.
Response	The behavior exhibited following a stimulus.

Research Design in Psychology: Independent Variables

In experimental psychology, independent variables are the factors that researchers intentionally manipulate to observe their impact on dependent variables. By changing independent variables, scientists can establish cause-and-effect relationships within their studies (Field, 2018).

Question	Answer	Explanation
Variables in an experiment that are changed and controlled by the experimenter are called __________.	Independent variables	These are variables that researchers manipulate to measure their impact on behavior or other dependent variables.

Factors That Impact Research Results: Controlling Bias

A double-blind study is a research method designed to minimize bias by ensuring that neither participants nor experimenters know which individuals are in the control or experimental groups. This approach helps prevent conscious or unconscious influences on the results, improving the validity and reliability of the findings (Rosenthal & Rosnow, 2008).

Question	Answer	Explanation
__________ is a method of controlling bias in which both the experimenter and the subjects do not know who is experiencing the experimental conditions.	A double-blind study	This process protects against bias that could affect the results, ensuring more objective findings.

Three Levels of Analysis: Biological Perspective

The biological perspective in psychology examines how genetics, brain function, and evolutionary processes influence behavior. This viewpoint explores the impact of inherited traits and neurobiological mechanisms on psychological phenomena, grounding behavior in physical and evolutionary foundations (Pinel, 2017).

Question	Answer	Explanation
Which perspective emphasizes the role of genetics and natural selection in the development of human behavior?	Biological perspective	It examines how biology, including genetics and brain function, influences behavior over time.

History of Psychological Theories: Structuralism, Functionalism, and Freud – Founder of Psychodynamic Theory

Sigmund Freud is recognized as the founder of psychodynamic theory. This theory suggests that unconscious drives, childhood experiences, and internal conflicts have a significant impact on behavior. Freud’s clinical observations led him to conclude that many psychological disorders originate from unresolved unconscious conflicts rather than physical causes (Freud, 1923).

Question	Answer	Explanation
Who founded psychodynamic theory?	Sigmund Freud	Freud’s work focused on the unconscious mind and its effect on conscious behavior.

History of Psychological Theories: Cognitive Psychology and Humanism – Humanism and the Hierarchy of Needs

Humanistic psychology, advanced by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers, emphasizes individual growth and self-actualization. Maslow introduced the hierarchy of needs, a motivational model outlining how humans progress from meeting basic physiological requirements to achieving higher psychological fulfillment and self-realization (Maslow, 1943).

Question	Answer	Explanation
Which scientist significantly contributed to humanistic psychology through the hierarchy of needs?	Abraham Maslow	Maslow’s model outlines motivation as a progression through different levels of human needs.

The Scientific Method and Research Methods: Biased Samples

A biased sample occurs when the participants selected for a study do not represent the broader population accurately, which can lead to invalid or misleading conclusions. Researchers aim to reduce bias by using random sampling techniques to improve the representativeness and generalizability of their results (Gravetter & Forzano, 2020).

Question	Answer	Explanation
What describes a biased sample?	A sample that is not representative of a population	Such samples limit the validity of findings and restrict their applicability.

Ethics in Psychological Research: APA Code of Conduct

The American Psychological Association (APA) provides ethical guidelines to safeguard the rights and welfare of research participants. The APA Code of Conduct highlights key principles such as obtaining informed consent, ensuring confidentiality, and minimizing harm. These ethical standards are designed to maintain integrity and respect for human dignity in psychological research (APA, 2017).

Question	Answer	Explanation
What is a central focus of the APA Professional Code of Conduct for psychologists?	Protecting the welfare of clients	The code ensures ethical standards to safeguard participant rights and promote ethical research practices.

References

American Psychological Association. (2017). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct. https://www.apa.org/ethics/code

American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). APA.

Field, A. (2018). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics (5th ed.). SAGE Publications.

Freud, S. (1923). The ego and the id. W.W. Norton & Company.

Gravetter, F. J., & Forzano, L. B. (2020). Research methods for the behavioral sciences (7th ed.). Cengage Learning.

C180 Milestone 1 Study Notes

Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370–396.

Pinel, J. P. J. (2017). Biopsychology (10th ed.). Pearson Education.

Rosenthal, R., & Rosnow, R. L. (2008). Essentials of behavioral research: Methods and data analysis (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill.

Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. Macmillan.

Watson, J. B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological Review, 20(2), 158–177.