Name
Western Governors University
C180 Introduction to Psychology
Prof. Name
Date
By the conclusion of this chapter, you will be able to:
Understand the extensive scope of psychology as a discipline.
Identify and differentiate among the key psychological perspectives.
Comprehend the scientific research methods used to investigate human thought and behavior.
Psychology is fundamentally the scientific examination of human behavior, emotions, and cognitive processes. Various psychological approaches offer distinct viewpoints to explain why people think, feel, and behave in particular ways.
Behavioral Approach
This perspective prioritizes observable behavior over internal mental states. It investigates how external environmental stimuli and internal responses interact to influence behavior. Key concepts such as classical and operant conditioning, pioneered by Pavlov and Skinner, form the foundation of this approach.
Biological Approach
This approach examines the genetic, neurological, and physiological bases of psychological functions. It interprets mental processes through biological factors including neurotransmitters, hormones, and brain anatomy.
Evolutionary Approach
Focusing on natural selection, this approach explores how behaviors and cognitive traits have developed to enhance survival and reproduction. It studies traits like aggression, cooperation, and mate choice from an adaptive perspective.
Developmental Approach
Also called Human Development, this perspective studies psychological growth and change throughout life—from infancy to old age—highlighting milestones in cognitive, emotional, and social development and the reasons behind individual differences.
Psychodynamic Approach
Based on Freud’s theories, it emphasizes unconscious motives, early childhood experiences, and inner conflicts that shape personality and emotional health. Defense mechanisms and unconscious drives are central to this viewpoint.
Cultural Approach
This perspective highlights how culture, traditions, gender roles, and social identities such as ethnicity and sexual orientation influence psychological processes, including perception, motivation, and behavior.
Cognitive Approach
It investigates mental functions like thinking, memory, attention, problem-solving, and language. The focus is on how information is processed and stored, and how this affects decision-making and behavior.
Psychology addresses fundamental questions such as why people behave the way they do, why emotions occur, how thinking is shaped, what distinguishes humans from other species, the origin of individual differences, and how social environments influence behavior.
The table below illustrates the broad areas psychology explores:
| Topic | Description |
|---|---|
| Brain Functioning | Studies brain activity and its correlation with behavior, emphasizing how brain regions work together. |
| Memory | Explores how memory functions, including recall accuracy, eyewitness testimony, and distortions. |
| Innate Capacities | Examines natural abilities present from birth, such as infants’ numerical comprehension. |
| Communication and Displays | Analyzes verbal and nonverbal communication including gestures, tone, and social signaling. |
| Social Behavior in Humans | Investigates complex human interactions, group behavior, conformity, leadership, and crowd dynamics. |
Understanding variability in social behavior remains a central focus of psychological research, shedding light on how individuals behave differently in groups.
Psychology’s strength lies in its multifaceted perspectives, each analyzing a single behavior from unique angles. Consider the example of eating behavior:
| Perspective | Focus Area |
|---|---|
| Biological | Examines genetic and physiological factors like hunger hormones and brain regulation. |
| Cultural | Looks at how cultural traditions and social norms shape eating habits. |
| Social | Studies the influence of social settings, peer pressure, and family on eating behavior. |
| Psychological Disorders | Focuses on abnormal eating patterns such as anorexia and bulimia. |
| Cognitive | Investigates decision-making and self-regulation related to food consumption. |
| Developmental | Traces how food preferences develop and change over a lifetime. |
Two core themes unify the field of psychology:
Theme 1: Types of Questions
Psychologists seek to understand why humans think, feel, and behave the way they do.
Theme 2: Methods of Inquiry
Psychologists employ systematic and empirical methods—observation, experimentation, and data analysis—to ensure their conclusions are valid and reliable.
Psychology uses the scientific method to describe, explain, predict, and influence human behavior. This process involves identifying a problem, creating hypotheses, gathering data, analyzing results, and making conclusions.
Research in psychology is categorized into experimental and non-experimental methods, each with distinct characteristics.
| Method Type | Examples | Data Type | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Experimental | Laboratory, field, quasi-experiments | Quantitative | Allows control of variables and causal inference. |
| Non-experimental | Observations, surveys, interviews, case studies | Qualitative or quantitative | Descriptive; limited control over variables. |
Naturalistic observation entails watching behavior in natural environments without interference. For instance, researchers might count how often individuals smile or show aggression during daily social interactions.
Correlational research examines the relationships between variables, determining the direction and strength of these relationships without establishing cause and effect.
| Correlation Type | Description | Coefficient Range |
|---|---|---|
| Positive Correlation | Both variables increase or decrease together. | Close to +1.00 |
| Negative Correlation | One variable increases as the other decreases. | Close to -1.00 |
| No Correlation | No meaningful relationship between variables. | Around 0 |
Experimental designs involve manipulating one variable to observe its effect on another, enabling conclusions about cause and effect.
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Independent Variable (IV) | The variable manipulated by the researcher. |
| Dependent Variable (DV) | The outcome measured in the study. |
| Control Group | Participants not exposed to the experimental treatment. |
| Experimental Group | Participants exposed to the treatment. |
Example Hypothesis: “Verbal praise improves students’ performance in mathematics.”
Two groups of students, matched for ability, are taught the same material. Group A receives verbal praise; Group B does not. Results show Group A performs better, supporting the hypothesis.
| Variable Type | Example in Study |
|---|---|
| Dependent Variable | Student achievement in mathematics |
| Independent Variable | Use of verbal praise |
| Experimental Group | Group A (received praise) |
| Control Group | Group B (no praise) |
| Method | Advantages | Disadvantages |
|---|---|---|
| Observation | High ecological validity; minimal researcher interference. | Limited control over variables; no causality. |
| Correlational | Identifies patterns; applicable in real-world settings. | Cannot infer cause and effect. |
| Experimental | Control over variables; allows causal conclusions. | Artificial environment; potential bias; limited generalizability. |
American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). https://doi.org/10.1037/0000165-000
Myers, D. G., & DeWall, C. N. (2019). Psychology (12th ed.). Worth Publishers.
Sternberg, R. J., & Sternberg, K. (2017). Cognitive psychology (7th ed.). Cengage Learning.
