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Chamberlain University
BIOS-255: Anatomy & Physiology III with Lab
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Date
Question: Describe innate and adaptive immune systems, how they work, and how they interact.
The immune system is divided into two main parts: innate and adaptive immunity. The innate immune system provides a general defense against pathogens and is the body’s first line of defense. It includes barriers like the skin, chemicals in the blood, and immune system cells that attack foreign substances. The adaptive immune system is more specific and can recognize, remember, and attack particular pathogens with greater precision. It works by developing a memory of pathogens, which enables a quicker and more potent response upon future encounters. These two systems interact to create a cohesive defense mechanism, where innate immunity triggers and helps guide the adaptive response.
Question: Explain the various subclasses of antibodies – how they are similar, how they differ.
Antibodies, also known as immunoglobulins, are proteins produced by B cells that help the immune system recognize and neutralize pathogens. The five major subclasses of antibodies are IgG, IgA, IgM, IgE, and IgD. They share a common basic structure but differ in their functions and locations. For example, IgG is the most abundant and effective in providing long-term immunity, while IgA is found in mucous membranes and protects against infections in those areas. IgM is the first antibody produced during an infection, IgE is involved in allergic responses, and IgD has a less clear function but is thought to play a role in respiratory defense.
Question: Define ventilation, external respiration, and internal respiration. Be sure to identify their functions and where they occur.
Ventilation refers to the movement of air into and out of the lungs. External respiration is the exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) between the air in the lungs and the blood. Internal respiration is the exchange of gases between the blood and the tissues of the body. Ventilation occurs in the lungs, while external respiration takes place in the alveoli, and internal respiration occurs in the tissues throughout the body.
Question: Explain the neural control of ventilation, including brain centers, sensory and motor signals.
The brain controls ventilation through centers located in the medulla oblongata and the pons. These centers regulate the rate and depth of breathing by sending signals to the respiratory muscles. Sensory signals from chemoreceptors and baroreceptors monitor the levels of carbon dioxide, oxygen, and pH in the blood, while motor signals stimulate the diaphragm and intercostal muscles to contract, leading to inhalation.
Question: Describe how oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported in the blood, emphasizing factors affecting loading/unloading in the lungs vs. tissues.
Oxygen is transported in the blood primarily bound to hemoglobin in red blood cells, while carbon dioxide is mainly transported as bicarbonate ions in the plasma. The loading of oxygen occurs in the lungs where oxygen concentration is high, and unloading happens in tissues where oxygen is used for metabolism. Carbon dioxide is picked up in tissues and transported back to the lungs for exhalation. Factors like pH, temperature, and the concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide influence this process.
Question: List and briefly describe the major functions of the various subclasses of T cells.
T cells are divided into several subclasses: helper T cells (CD4+), cytotoxic T cells (CD8+), and regulatory T cells. Helper T cells activate other immune cells, cytotoxic T cells kill infected cells, and regulatory T cells help control the immune response to prevent overreaction.
Question: Explain the similarities and differences between primary and secondary responses of the adaptive immune response.
The primary response occurs when the immune system first encounters a pathogen. It takes time to develop and is usually weaker. The secondary response occurs upon subsequent exposure to the same pathogen and is faster and more powerful due to memory cells generated during the primary response.
Question: Functions of the Spleen
The spleen filters blood, removes old red blood cells, and produces immune responses to blood-borne pathogens.
Question: All muscles used in exhaling and inhaling
Inhalation involves the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles, while exhalation involves the internal intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles.
Question: Know the characteristics of the thymus
The thymus is responsible for the maturation of T cells, which are critical for the adaptive immune response.
Question: Know the components of the lymphatic system
The lymphatic system includes lymph, lymph nodes, lymphatic vessels, the thymus, spleen, and tonsils. These components are essential for immune surveillance and the return of interstitial fluid to the blood.
Question: Know the conduction system for air
The air conduction system includes the nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles leading to the alveoli where gas exchange occurs.
Question: Where gas exchange occurs in the lung and how this occurs
Gas exchange occurs in the alveoli, where oxygen is absorbed into the blood and carbon dioxide is released from the blood into the alveoli to be exhaled.
Question: Function of RBCs, T-cells, B-cells, Cytotoxic T cells, Natural killer cells
Red blood cells (RBCs) transport oxygen, T cells mediate immune responses, B cells produce antibodies, cytotoxic T cells kill infected cells, and natural killer cells target and kill virus-infected or cancerous cells.
Question: Return of lymph to venous circulation
Lymph is collected from tissues and returned to the venous system through lymphatic vessels and ducts.
Question: Know the process of inhalation and exhalation (the steps involved)
Inhalation involves the contraction of the diaphragm and external intercostals, creating a negative pressure that draws air into the lungs. Exhalation is usually passive but can involve active contraction of the internal intercostals and abdominal muscles to expel air.
Question: Describe the feedback mechanism involved in erythropoiesis.
Erythropoiesis is regulated by the hormone erythropoietin, which is produced by the kidneys in response to low oxygen levels. This stimulates the bone marrow to produce more red blood cells.
Question: Describe the cardiac cycle (include conduction, contraction, heart sounds, and EKG information).
The cardiac cycle includes the phases of systole and diastole. Electrical signals generated by the sinoatrial node trigger contraction (systole) of the atria and ventricles, followed by relaxation (diastole). Heart sounds correspond to valve closures, and the EKG records the electrical activity of the heart.
Question: Describe the factors that increase blood pressure (negative feedback involved in blood pressure regulation).
Factors that increase blood pressure include increased blood volume, heart rate, and vasoconstriction. Negative feedback mechanisms, such as baroreceptor reflexes, help regulate blood pressure by adjusting heart rate and vessel diameter.
Question: Describe the responses involved in non-specific immunity.
Non-specific immunity includes physical barriers, phagocytic cells, and inflammation. These responses do not target specific pathogens but act as a general defense.
Question: Describe cell-mediated immunity (antigen presentation, antigen recognition, activation, and cellular response). Include both CD8 and CD4 T cells.
Cell-mediated immunity involves antigen-presenting cells displaying antigens to T cells. CD4 T cells help activate other immune cells, while CD8 T cells directly attack infected cells.
Question: Describe antibody-mediated immunity (antigen presentation, antigen recognition, activation, and cellular response).
Antibody-mediated immunity involves B cells recognizing antigens and producing antibodies that neutralize pathogens.
Question: Describe the events, pressures, and muscles involved in inhalation and exhalation.
Inhalation occurs when the diaphragm contracts, lowering thoracic pressure and allowing air to enter. Exhalation occurs when the diaphragm relaxes, increasing thoracic pressure and expelling air.
Question: Describe how breathing is regulated through the negative feedback control of PCO2, PO2, and pH.
Breathing is regulated by chemoreceptors that monitor carbon dioxide (PCO2), oxygen (PO2), and pH levels in the blood. When PCO2 increases, the brain stimulates increased breathing to expel more CO2 and balance pH levels.
Question: Explain the difference between nonspecific and specific defense and the role of lymphocytes in each immune response.
Nonspecific defense is a general response to any pathogen, while specific defense targets particular pathogens. Lymphocytes, such as T and B cells, play a critical role in the specific immune response by recognizing and attacking specific pathogens
Question: Identify the major components of the lymphatic system and explain their functions.
The major components include lymph nodes, lymphatic vessels, the spleen, and the thymus. These structures filter lymph, remove pathogens, and support immune responses.
Question: List the body’s nonspecific defenses, and explain the function of two of them, also describe the components and mechanisms.
The body’s nonspecific defenses include barriers like the skin, mucous membranes, phagocytic cells, inflammation, and fever. Skin acts as a physical barrier, while inflammation attracts immune cells to the site of infection.
Question: Discuss the types of T cells and the role played by each in the immune response, and explain the mechanisms of their activation.
Helper T cells activate other immune cells, cytotoxic T cells kill infected cells, and regulatory T cells prevent excessive immune reactions. They are activated by antigen presentation from other immune cells.
Question: Describe the mechanisms of B cell activation and the differentiation of plasma cells and memory B cells.
B cells are activated when they encounter an antigen, which triggers them to proliferate into plasma cells that produce antibodies and memory B cells that provide long-term immunity.
Question: Describe the structure of an antibody, and discuss the types and functions of antibodies in body fluids and secretions.
Antibodies have a Y-shaped structure with variable regions that bind antigens. IgG, IgA, IgM, IgE, and IgD have different functions, such as neutralizing toxins and viruses or facilitating phagocytosis.
Question: Identify the organs forming the respiratory passageway(s) in descending order until the alveoli are reached. Distinguish between conducting and respiratory zone structures.
The respiratory passageways include the nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli. The conducting zone transports air, while the respiratory zone is involved in gas exchange.
Question: List several physical factors that influence pulmonary ventilation and list the various lung volumes and capacities.
Factors influencing ventilation include airway resistance, lung compliance, and surface tension. Lung volumes include tidal volume, inspiratory reserve, and expiratory reserve, while capacities include vital capacity and total lung capacity.
Question: Describe how oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported in the blood.
Oxygen is carried mainly by hemoglobin in red blood cells, and carbon dioxide is transported as bicarbonate in the plasma, with some dissolved in blood and bound to proteins.
Question: Compare the causes and consequences of conditions such as chronic bronchitis, emphysema, asthma, COPD, ‘black lung,’ and lung cancer.
Chronic bronchitis, emphysema, asthma, COPD, and black lung are chronic respiratory conditions characterized by inflammation, obstruction, or destruction of lung tissue. Lung cancer involves abnormal cell growth in the lungs and is often caused by smoking or environmental toxins
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